韩雪亮,王霄

• 1:暨南大学管理学院

摘要(Abstract)：

组织创新包括技术创新和管理创新,是企业实现转型变革的关键所在,基于个体创意而产生再逐步被群体及管理者所确认的自下而上的组织创新尤为重要,但现有研究对此缺乏系统性思考。本文以目标导向理论、社会交换理论和管理者态度理论为基础,以"选择性"为主线,构建了一个自下而上推动组织创新的过程模型。模型描述了推动组织创新的三个阶段,揭示了分属个体、群体和组织三个层面的创意、创造和创新的内在联系和作用机制。研究内容不仅丰富了现有创新理论,同时也为企业创新实践带来了启示。

关键词(KeyWords)： 目标导向;社会交换;态度基础观;选择性;创新;组织创新

Abstract:

Keywords:

基金项目(Foundation): 国家自然科学基金重点项目(71333007)

作者(Author): 韩雪亮,王霄

DOI: 10.16538/j.cnki.fem.2015.09.001

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• 1根据Fay等(2015)的研究,工作组的性质差异对组织创新的影响不同。本研究中的群体除了正式工作场所的合作团队成员外,还包括工作场所内的非正式团体。
• 1Muller等(2014)以情感传递为主线,阐述了受外部事件影响的个体同情心在组织内部传播并最终影响企业的慈善行为。
• 2本研究认为,企业内部的创新行为至少可以通过一个自下而上的过程得以实现。事实上,在很多时候,推动组织创新和实施重大变革的情况也是如此。这是因为:其一,从历史的角度来看,大量的历史事件(诸如:欧洲的工人运动、美国工会的兴起和发展,德国社保计划的建立和中国的土地承包制度改革以及未来改革红利等)都是一个自下而上的过程;其二,社会行为表征了个体和环境之间连续的交互作用,因而创新行为的实施离不开行为个体及其执行人周围群体的支持;其三,尽管不同的事件源于不同的目的,但在它们形成和发展的过程中却有着惊人的相同的范式,创新行为同样具有社会行为的性质,而所有的社会行为都带有一定的目标取向。
• 3从模型的呈现形式来看,个体层面是本研究所构建的过程模型所聚焦的重要层面。首先,从社会心理学的角度考察了处于个体层面的员工的目标导向以及他们分享自我创意的行为动机;进而,通过员工个体就创意在工作场合内以社会交换形式所进行的选择性披露为机制,进一步分析了集体对创意的接收、筛选和实践;最后,从组织层面的视角考察了作为企业的管理者对自下而上的创新行为和过程的态度。
• 1借鉴Kahneman(1973)在分析行为人态度时对态度方向(attention　selection)和态度强度(attention　intensity)的界定,Li等(2013)将搜寻方向定义为管理者所关注的对象,而搜寻强度是管理者在其所关注的对象上所付出的努力程度。其中,方向是强度的前提,因为它决定了行动者为所关注的对象在什么方向上的努力并加以坚持;强度表现在既定的方向上的努力程度以及坚持的持久性。
• 2这是因为:一方面,“人的判断行为也往往基于以往的知识和经验为背景的直觉反应而非优化,因此组织创新活动具有内在的随机性”(陈春明和马晓谦,2009);另一方面,管理者的有限理性决定了他们只能注意/专注于搜寻过程中的部分信息(Cyert和March,1963),搜寻选择反映了搜寻者所聚焦的方向,并影响搜寻结果的产出(Daft和Weick,1984)。
• 3自我呈现包括:构建自我形象(Swann等,1992)和获取资源(Schlenker,1980;Jones和Pittman,1982)。已有研究表明,社会交换中的互惠帮助能够使提供帮助的人获得更多奖励机会,并能够从中持续受益(Flynn,2003)。在由非亲缘关系组成的社会网络中,合作的个体比不合作的个体更容易获得由物质资源带来的生存优势。同时,“企业-员工”之间的互惠不仅仅能够显著提高员工的生存能力,还能够为企业的基业长青带来支撑(Fehr等,1997)。
• 4市场定价和群体共享都是社会交换的模型。根据Fiske(1992)以及Haslam和Fiske(1999)的定义,市场定价是“根据合理的利己原则进行交易。个体的付出与获得的商品或服务成比例,并且寻求可能的最佳‘交易’”;而群体共享是“群体中所有成员在需要的时候共享资源并相互依赖和照顾”。
• 1创意资源的特殊性表现在:它一旦被输送就无法撤消,只能更新。
• 2在前人研究的基础上,Pieterse等(2013)进一步指出:“学习-趋近”导向(learning　approach　orientation)旨在扩充知识、提高竞争力和履行自我设定或所处环境中的绝对标准,“学习-回避”导向(learning　avoidance　orientation)旨在避免知识和竞争力的丧失,“表现-趋近”导向(performance　approach　orientation)旨在超越他人以彰显自己更加称职,“表现-回避”导向(performance　avoidance　orientation)旨在避免因表现落后于人而为自己带来不称职的坏名声。
• 1根据Sarah(2014)的研究,群体愿意帮助个体的原因在于:群体为了满足自我突破而需要更多的认知资源、社会资源和环境资源,而不同的个体往往能够为群体解决问题提供信息和可行性的方案。
• 2例如,激发个人创意、发展个人能力、提高个人技能和自我创新意识。
• 1根据前摄性行为理论(Crant,2000;Parker等,2010;Li等,2010;张婕等,2014),员工在其工作中“会主动创造环境,改善条件,主动寻求机会与信息”。即,“员工在其工作行为中扮演着积极主动的角色……而非消极被动地等待被管理”。
• 2Battistella和Nonino(2012和2013),刘志迎等(2015)的研究结果均表明:低成本利基是众创概念三层次含义中的第一层含义要素之一,另外两个要素为员工兴趣和自我价值实现。
• 1根据Kirton(1976)有关创新行为的研究,创新者(innovators)会以不同的方式做事(doing　things　differently),而适应者(adapters)是将事情做得更好(doing　things　better)。